Comment by austin-cheney

While it's correct that fusion stops producing energy once the fusion product is iron, it is not true that all elements beyond iron are only produced in cataclysmic events (supernovae / neutron star collisions).

Stars can function as "breeder reactors", where the natural flow of neutrons produced as intermediate / side effect of the various fusion reactions going on in a later-stage-life star get absorbed by nuclei and then (by beta decay) produce beyond-iron elements. This is called the "s-Process" (slow), and responsible for a large range of elements into the Lanthanides or so. And stellar winds, or the planetary nebula stage at the end, will return some of this to the interstellar medium.

It's correct that the heaviest "naturally present" elements require the so-called "r-Process", heavy overabundance of neutrons / extremely high neutron flow as in supernovae, or direct fusion of beyond-iron nuclei as in neutron star collisions.

There is rather active research happening here, both astronomical (trying to detect various nuclei from x ray spectroscopy of cataclysmic events) and theoretical (because r-Process cannot be simulated in labs since the neutron fluxes needed are not within our reach).

That said, it remains true that many "transition groups" elements are bred via s-Process in relatively-ordinary stars.

It is kind of astonishing (well, not really if you think about it - more violent stuff actually happens faster with stars, and energy density was higher in the early universe) that every stable element exists on earth even if some are very rare. That means that earth's materials have had quite a lot of stuff happening to them before forming earth.

This is only approximately correct.

Iron 56 is the isotope with the highest nuclear binding energy per nucleon, so it can form from the fusion of any lighter nuclei.

After iron 56, the binding energy decreases slowly, so the next heavier nuclei can still form from the fusion of certain lighter nuclei, but not from any of them, but only from pairs with a lower average binding energy.

So the following heavier nuclei after iron 56 can still form through fusion, but with increasing atomic mass the probability of their formation decreases quickly, until it becomes negligible.

Relatively large amounts of cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium and germanium still form through the fusion of lighter elements, but after germanium the amount of chemical elements formed through fusion becomes extremely low. Already the amount of germanium formed through fusion is almost ten thousand times less than the amount of iron.

The binding energy per nucleon decreases very slowly, so even uranium has a higher binding energy per nucleon than helium, so energetically it could form through the fusion of hydrogen or helium, but such an event has a completely negligible probability (because there is a negligible chance for so many hydrogen or helium nuclei to collide simultaneously and if they fuse into nuclei of intermediate mass those block the propagation of the fusion reaction by having higher binding energies than the heavier nuclei).

The elements heavier than germanium form almost only through neutron capture, with the exception of some proton-rich isotopes, which form through collisions with protons. There are several kinds of environments with abundant neutrons where heavy elements can form, where the concentrations of neutrons and their energy distributions are different, so in any of these environments there are different classes of isotopes that form preferentially there.

In a relatively young stellar system like ours, the matter from which the star and the planets have condensed is a mixture of chemical elements coming from different sources.

In environments with extremely high neutron abundances (which include the nuclear explosions on Earth, not only supernova explosions, neutron star collisions and the like), all chemical elements up to fermium (Z = 100) are formed. Nonetheless, while the matter composed of these elements travels through space until the formation of a new stellar system, most of the trans-uranium elements, except the plutonium, decay. When the Solar System was formed, it still contained relatively large amounts of plutonium, not only thorium and uranium, as the heaviest elements, but since then until now the plutonium has decayed, like also most of the uranium 235 that is used now in nuclear reactors.

Yes, it is produced artificially in nuclear reactors, thus it is much more expensive than any natural isotope.

The amount used in a nuclear clock would be very small, but even so, its availability would be a problem.

This article says it’s all about the thorium and radon. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_radiation

I have no idea which of these articles is more correct.

Where does the potassium come from?